1. Valentina V. Ukraintseva, Vegetation Cover and Environment of the “Mammoth Epoch” in Siberia (Hot Springs, South Dakota: The Mammoth Site of Hot Springs, 1993), pp. 12–13.
u N. A. Dubrovo et al., “Upper Quaternary Deposits and Paleogeography of the Region Inhabited by the Young Kirgilyakh Mammoth,” International Geology Review, Vol. 24, June 1982, p. 630.
2. R. Dale Guthrie, Frozen Fauna of the Mammoth Steppe (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990), p. 9.
3. S. Keith Eltringham, Elephants, editor Jeheskel Shoshani (Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale Press, 1992), p. 102.
4. Some people split mammoths into various species, such as Mammuthus primigenius (woolly mammoth) and Mammuthus columbi (Columbian mammoth). Members of a species can interbreed with each other, but not with others. Obviously, no one can say that the woolly mammoth could not produce offspring with the Columbian mammoth or that the Columbian mammoth did not have a hairy coat similar to that of the woolly mammoth. Their differences were slight. Artificially “creating” new species without some genetic or experimental justification seems unwise.
Although African and Asian elephants are categorized as different species, on at least one occasion they interbred successfully. (Unfortunately, that offspring died ten days after birth.) Therefore, African and Asian elephants should not be regarded as different species. If they occupied the same territory, no doubt other hybrids would be born.
u According to Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (Unabridged; 1964 edition, p. 1369), the word “mammoth” comes from “mamma,” which means “earth” to the Yakut people of northeastern Siberia. “Mammoth” also relates to the word “behemoth” used in Job 40:15 to describe a huge animal. See:
v Henry H. Howorth, The Mammoth and the Flood (London: Samson Low, Marston, Searle, and Rivington, 1887), pp. 2–4, 74–75.
v A. E. Nordenskiold, The Voyage of the Vega Round Asia and Europe, translated from Swedish by Alexander Leslie (New York: Macmillan and Co., 1882), p. 302.
v Willy Ley, Exotic Zoology (New York: The Viking Press, 1959), p. 152.
5. E. Ysbrants Ides, Three Years [of] Land Travels from Moscow Over-Land to China (London: W. Freeman, 1706) English edition. In 1692, Russia’s Czar Peter the Great directed Ides to explore the vast eastern region of Russia. The natives told Ides (p. 26) that mammoth carcasses were found, “sometimes whole,” “among the hills [yedoma],” along four named rivers and the Arctic coast. The bones in one mammoth’s head were “somewhat red, as tho’ they were tinctured with blood” and a forefoot, cut from a leg, was as big around as a man’s waist.
u One of the earliest descriptions of frozen mammoths, written in 1724, was authenticated by Dr. Daniel Gottlieb Messerschmidt, a naturalist sent to Siberia by Czar Peter the Great to inquire, among other things, into the frozen mammoth stories. Although Messerschmidt did not personally see the frozen partial remains, his eyewitness, Michael Wolochowicz, described the find in a short report. The report’s credibility is enhanced by its similarity with many later, thoroughly verified accounts. [See John Breyne, “Observations on the Mammoth’s Bones and Teeth Found in Siberia,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 40, January–June 1737, pp. 125–138.]
6. E. W. Pfizenmayer, Siberian Man and Mammoth, translated from German by Muriel D. Simpson (London: Black & Son Limited, 1939), p. 4.
7. Howorth, p. 76.
8. Basset Digby, The Mammoth (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1926), pp. 17–18, 79.
9. Five expeditions occurred in the 1970s, two in the 1980s, one in 1990, and one in 1999.
10. Ukraintseva, pp. 80 – 98.
u Guthrie, pp. 10, 30 – 32.
11. Science News Letter, Vol. 55, 25 June 1949, p. 403.
12. John Massey Stewart, “Frozen Mammoths from Siberia Bring the Ice Ages to Vivid Life,” Smithsonian, 1977, p. 67.
13. N. K. Vereshchagin and G. F. Baryshnikov, “Paleoecology of the Mammoth Fauna in the Eurasian Arctic,” Paleoecology of Beringia, editors David M. Hopkins et al. (New York: Academic Press, 1982), p. 276.
14. Harold E. Anthony, “Nature’s Deep Freeze,” Natural History, Vol. 58, September 1949, p. 300.
15. Michael R. Zimmerman and Richard H. Tedford, “Histologic Structures Preserved for 21,300 Years,” Science, Vol. 194, 8 October 1976, pp. 183–184.
16. Stewart, p. 68.
17. Charles H. Eden, Frozen Asia (New York: Pott, Young & Co., 1879), pp. 97–100.
18. A. G. Maddren, “Smithsonian Exploration in Alaska in 1904 in Search of Mammoth and Other Fossil Remains,” Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 49, 1905, p. 101.
19. W. H. Dall, “Presentation to the Biological Society of Washington,” Science, 8 November 1895, pp. 635–636.
20. N. A. Transehe, “The Siberian Sea Road: The Work of the Russian Hydrographical Expedition to the Arctic 1910 –1915,” The Geographical Review, Vol. 15, 1925, p. 392.
21. Adrian Lister and Paul Bahn, Mammoths (New York: Macmillan, 1994), p. 46.
22. A. P. Vinogradov et al., “Radiocarbon Dating in the Vernadsky Institute I–IV,” Radiocarbon, Vol. 8, 1966, pp. 320 – 321.
23. Robert M. Thorson and R. Dale Guthrie, “Stratigraphy of the Colorado Creek Mammoth Locality, Alaska,” Quaternary Research, Vol. 37, March 1992, pp. 214–228.
24. Richard Stone, “Mammoth Hunters Put Hopes on Ice,” Science, Vol. 291, 12 January 2001, pp. 229–230.
25. Howorth, pp. 50 – 54.
26. Ley, p. 169.
27. I. P. Tolmachoff, The Carcasses of the Mammoth and Rhinoceros Found in the Frozen Ground of Siberia (Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society, 1929), p. 71.
28. Maddren, p. 60.
29. Eske Willerslev et al., “Diverse Plant and Animal Genetic Records from Holocene and Pleistocene Sediments,” Science, Vol. 300, 2 May 2003, pp. 791–795.
u “... climate change played a big role in the mass extinction of mammoths, ground sloths, and other large North American mammals ...” Erik Stokstad, “Ancient DNA Pulled from Soil,” Science, Vol. 300, 18 April 2003, p. 407.
30. Richard B. Firestone et al., “Evidence for an Extraterrestrial Impact 12,900 Years Ago That Contributed to the Megafaunal Extinctions and the Younger Dryas Cooling,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, Vol. 104, 9 October 2007, pp. 16016–16021.
31. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7130014.stm
32. H. Neuville, “On the Extinction of the Mammoth,” Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1919, p. 332.
33. Nikolai K. Vereshchagin and Alexei N. Tikhonov, The Exterior of Mammoths (Yakutsk, Siberia: Merelotovedenia Institute, 1990), p. 18. (Russian)
u Pfizenmayer, p. 162.
u Hair on the rhinoceros leg also hung to the feet. [See Eden, pp. 99–100.]
34. Hans Krause, The Mammoth—In Ice and Snow? (Stuttgart, Germany: self-published, 1978), p. 53.
35. Neuville, pp. 327–338.
36. Krause, pp. 51–52.
37. A comparative study of 350 mitochondrial DNA nucleotides indicates that the mammoth is closely related to the African and Indian elephants. Dima, a woolly mammoth, differed from both African and Indian elephants by only four or five nucleotides. [See Jeremy Cherfas, “If Not a Dinosaur, a Mammoth?” Science, Vol. 253, 20 September 1991, p. 1356.] A recent Japanese study extracted longer strands of nuclear DNA, which showed the mammoth to be more closely related to the Indian elephant than the African elephant.
38. Ralph S. Palmer, “Elephant,” The World Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 6 (Chicago: Field Enterprises Educational Corporation, 1973), pp. 178, 178d.
39. Cynthia Moss, Elephants, editor Jeheskel Shoshani, (Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale Press, 1992), p. 115.
40. Harold Lamb, Hannibal: One Man Against Rome (New York: Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1958), pp. 83–108.
41. Redmond, p. 27.
42. Redmond, p. 42.
43. Digby, p. 151.
44. Anonymous, “Much About Muck,” Pursuit, Vol. 2, October 1969, p. 69.
45. Stewart, p. 68.
46. Redmond, p. 19.
47. Some have speculated that an asteroid struck the Earth and tipped its axis, so mammoths were suddenly at Arctic latitudes. Seldom considered are the Earth’s gigantic polar moment of inertia and angular momentum. For an impactor to tip such a stable body more than 5 degrees would require a massive and fast asteroid striking Earth at a favorable glancing blow. The resulting pressure pulse would pass through the entire atmosphere and kill almost all air-breathing animals. This proposal also overlooks the question of the origin of asteroids. [See pages 349– 374.]
48. Guthrie, p. 84.
49. Anonymous, “Much About Muck,” pp. 68–69.
50. Lindsey Williams, The Energy Non-Crisis, 2nd edition (Kasilof, Alaska: Worth Publishing Co., 1980), p. 54.
51. Lister and Bahn, p. 47.
52. R. Lydekker, “Mammoth Ivory,” Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the Year Ending June 30, 1899 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1901), pp. 361–366.
53. Vera Rich, “Gone to the Dogs,” Nature, Vol. 301, 24 February 1983, p. 647.
54. Two very similar accounts describe this discovery. [See Digby, pp. 97–103, or William T. Hornaday, Tales from Nature’s Wonderlands (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1926), pp. 32–38.] The latter was translated from a Russian report held in the American Museum of Natural History.
55. Ages of mammoths, elephants, and mastodons can be estimated by counting the rings in their tusks. This method was first used on Berezovka. [See Vereshchagin and Tikhonov, p. 17.] Some scientists question whether one ring always implies one year.
56. Peter the Great, Russia’s most famous and influential czar, founded this museum and initiated formal mammoth studies. His strong interest in science, and mammoths in particular, led in 1714 to the systematic study and exhibition in St. Petersburg of unusual and exotic animals.
57. O. F. Herz, “Frozen Mammoth in Siberia,” Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904), pp. 617, 620, 622.
u Digby, pp. 123, 126, 131.
58. Personal communication with Alexei N. Tikhonov, zoologist and mammoth specialist at the Zoological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, 12 November 1993.
59. Pfizenmayer, p. 104.
60. Vereshchagin and Tikhonov, p. 17.
61. Herz, p. 623.
u Digby, p. 182.
62. Jeheskel Shoshani, Elephants (Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale Press, 1992), pp. 79, 80, 97.
63. Readers may want to consider other explanations for the crushed leg bone, such as impacts or pinching forces perpendicular to the crushed bone. The flesh surrounding the bone was not visibly mangled, and the leg was still in its shoulder socket. Axial compression might crush a short, weak beam. However, to crush a long beam requires considerable lateral support.
64. Animals are amazingly designed to survive by regulating internal functions during a crisis. For example, all organs require oxygen. Some organs, such as the brain or heart, have a more critical need for oxygen than other body parts. So, when the mammoths were short on oxygen, their brains reduced the oxygen consumption of lower-priority systems, causing penile erection.
Specifically, venules lie between the venous capillaries and veins leading back to the heart. Venules contract when certain organs send a message that they are running low on oxygen. These contractions slow the flow of blood through the organs (allowing them to extract more oxygen) and increase the blood pressure upstream from the venules. Capillaries, the penis, and other organs become engorged with blood. [Personal communication with pathologist Dudley A. DuPuy Jr., M.D., 5 August 1995.]
65. Tolmachoff, p. 35.
66. Tolmachoff, p. 57.
67. Guthrie, p. 13.
68. Proceedings of the Berlin Academy, 1846, p. 223, cited by Howorth, p. 184.
69. Leopold von Schrenck, Memoirs of St. Petersburg Academy, Vol. 17, 1869, pp. 48–49, cited by Howorth, p. 185.
70. William R. Farrand, “Frozen Mammoths and Modern Geology,” Science, 17 March 1961, p. 734.
71. Ivan T. Sanderson, “Riddle of the Frozen Giants,” Saturday Evening Post, 16 January 1960, p. 82.
72. A. S. W., Nature, Vol. 68, 30 July 1903, p. 297.
73. Lister and Bahn, p. 74.
74. Charles H. Hapgood, The Path of the Pole (Philadelphia: Chilton Book Co., 1970), p. 267.
75. Joseph C. Dillow, The Waters Above: Earth’s Pre-Flood Vapor Canopy (Chicago: Moody Press, 1981), pp. 371–377.
76. Dillow, pp. 380 – 381.
77. Dillow, pp. 383–396.
78. Sanderson, 1960, pp. 82, 83.
u When an animal dies and decay begins, decomposing amino acids in each cell produce water that ruins the meat’s taste. Water expands as it freezes. If a cell freezes after enough water has accumulated, the expansion will tear the cell, showing that a certain amount of time elapsed between death and freezing. This characteristic was absent in the Berezovka mammoth, and the meat was edible—at least for dogs. These mammoths must have frozen before much decay occurred.
79. Pfizenmayer, pp. 105–106.
80. Ibid., p. 106.
81. Maddren, p. 60.
82. Pfizenmayer, p. 176.
83. Herz, pp. 613, 615.
84. Howorth, p. 96.
85. Maddren, p. 87.
86. L. S. Quackenbush, “Notes on Alaskan Mammoth Expeditions of 1907 and 1908,” Bulletin American Museum of Natural History, Vol. 26, 1 September 1901, pp. 87–127.
u Tolmachoff, pp. 51–55.
u Herz, pp. 615, 616, 618.
87. Some have called it fossil ice. Pfizenmayer, who was on the Berezovka expedition, called it diluvial ice. The term “diluvial” refers to the biblical flood (deluge). A common belief among Siberians was that the frozen mammoths were killed and buried during the biblical flood, after which Siberian weather became much colder. So, the term “diluvial” is often associated with buried animals and ice in Siberia. Even today, geologists use the word “diluvium” to refer to glacial deposits, believed in the 1800s to be laid down during Noah’s flood.
Baron Eduard Toll, in the late 1800s, may have been the first to write about this strange ice. He called it stone ice. Toll and his three companions disappeared in 1903 while on a mammoth expedition to Bennett Island, an Arctic island off the north coast of Siberia. A rescue attempt failed. Toll’s diary, found on Bennett Island three years later, reported that another frozen mammoth had been discovered (not listed in Table 8). Few details were given. [See, for example, Digby, p. 147.]
88. Herz, p. 618.
89. Quackenbush, p. 101.
90. W. H. Dall, “Extract from a Report to C. P. Patterson, Supt. Coast and Geodetic Survey,” American Journal of Science, Vol. 21, 1881, p. 107.
91. A. S. W., p. 297.
92. Dubrovo et al., pp. 630, 632.
93. An early report of these thick layers of buried ice came from an expedition led by Lieutenant J. C. Cantwell. He concluded that, “The formation of the remarkable ice-cliffs in the lower country [of northern Alaska] is, however, a geological nut which the writer admits his inability to crack.” “Ice-Cliffs on the Kowak River,” National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 7, October 1896, pp. 345–346. [See also J. C. Cantwell, “Exploration of the Kowak River,” Science, Vol. 4, 19 December 1884, pp. 551–554.]
Some, but not all, of these reported ice layers may be the vertical faces of ice wedges. When found along coastlines, the two are easily confused. As the Arctic winter approaches and temperatures drop, the ground contracts, sometimes splitting open with a loud crack. Water later fills the vertical crack, freezes, and forms an ice wedge. Years later, this fracture, which is a vertical plane of weakness, might be exposed along a coastline by the undercutting of waves. The side of the ice wedge, if viewed from a boat far from the coast, might seem to be the edge of a horizontal layer of ice. Only by tracing the ice inland for hundreds of feet can the “ice wedge explanation” be rejected. Dall (p. 107) and Maddren (pp. 15–117) did this.
94. Dall, p. 107.
u Maddren, p. 104.
u Cantwell, “Ice-Cliffs,” p. 345.
95. Cantwell, “Ice-Cliffs,” p. 346.
96. Pfizenmayer, pp. 89–90.
97. Herz, p. 618.
98. Stewart, p. 68.
99. “The yedoma deposits could only have been formed by cryogenous-eolian [cold and windy] processes.” V. K. Ryabchun, “More about the Genesis of the Yedoma Deposit,” The Second International Conference on Permafrost: USSR Contribution, 13–28 July 1973 (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1978), pp. 816–817.
100. Adolph Erman, Travels in Siberia, Vol. 1 (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1848), pp. 379–380.
101. Nordenskiold, pp. 26, 311.
102. Paul A. Colinvaux, “Land Bridge of Duvanny Yar,” Nature, Vol. 314, 18 April 1985, p. 581.
103. Ryabchun, p. 817.
u S. V. Tomirdiaro, “Evolution of Lowland Landscapes in Northeastern Asia During Late Quaternary Time,” Paleoecology of Beringia, editors David M. Hopkins et al. (New York: Academic Press, 1982), pp. 29–37.
104. Elise Kleeman, “Siberian Thaw Releases Methane and Accelerates Global Warming,” Discover, January 2006, p. 34.
105. A. I. Popov, “Origin of the Deposits of the Yedoma Suite on the Primor’Ye Floodplain of Northern Yakutia,” The Second International Conference on Permafrost: USSR Contribution, 13–28 July 1973 (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1978), p. 825.
106. S. V. Tomirdiaro, “Cryogenous-Eolian Genesis of Yedoma Deposits,” The Second International Conference on Permafrost: USSR Contribution, 13–28 July 1973 (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1978), pp. 817–818.
u Colinvaux, p. 582.
u Tomirdiaro, “Evolution of Lowlands,” pp. 22–37.
u Troy L. Péwé, Origin and Character of Loesslike Silt in Unglaciated South-Central Yakutia, Siberia, U.S.S.R., Geological Survey Professional Paper 1262 (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1983).
107. John B. Penniston, “Note on the Origin of Loess,” Popular Astronomy, Vol. 39, 1931, pp. 429–430.
u John B. Penniston, “Additional Note on the Origin of Loess,” Popular Astronomy, Vol. 51, 1943, pp. 170 –172.
108. Richard Foster Flint and Brian J. Skinner, Physical Geology (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1974), p. 190.
109. Digby, p. 107.
110. Tolmachoff, p. 51.
u “Experience has also shown that more [and better mammoth bones] are found in elevations situated near higher hills than along the low coast or on the flat tundra.” Ferdinand von Wrangell, Narrative of an Expedition to the Polar Sea, in the Years 1820, 1821, 1822, & 1823, 2nd edition (London: James Madden and Co., 1884), p. 275.
111. Sanderson, 1960, p. 82.
u Tolmachoff, pp. 51, 59.
112. Don DeNevi, Earthquakes (Millbrae, California: Celestial Arts, 1977), pp. 56, 67.
113. Tolmachoff, pp. 48, 49.
114. “Seeds and grasses from the intestines indicate that the mammoth died in autumn.” Stewart, “Frozen Mammoths from Siberia,” p. 68.
115. “It is the grass seeds (the species as yet unidentified) which testify to Dima's death in summer, perhaps even specifically in the month of August.” John Massey Stewart, “A Baby That Died 40,000 Years Ago Reveals a Story,” Smithsonian, 1978, p. 126.
116. “The discovery of the ripe fruits of sedges, grasses, and other plants suggest that the mammoth died during the second half of July or the beginning of August.” Hapgood, p. 268.
117. Tolmachoff, pp. 26, 56–57.
u Howorth, pp. 61, 82–83, 158, 185.
118. For example, one might ask, “What predictions can the theory of organic evolution make?” Few, if any, although Darwin predicted that the gaps in the fossil record would soon be filled. Obviously, he was wrong. Evolutionists today are quick to explain why they make no predictions. Evolution happens over geologic time—so slowly that they cannot see it on a human time scale, even after breeding thousands of generations of many organisms. Yet, when asked why many gaps exist in the fossil record, their typical answer is that evolution happens so rapidly that the important fossils are seldom preserved. Unwillingness to make predictions shows a lack of scientific rigor and confidence. Successful predictions are the best test of a theory’s strength and fruitfulness.
119. See “Rocket Science” on pages 598– 599.
u Temperatures in outer space are often misunderstood. For example, a physicist might say the temperature 200 miles above the Earth’s surface is 2,000°F. However, a thermometer shielded from the Sun’s direct rays, might register a drastically colder -150°F. The confusion results from different definitions of temperature and different ways of transferring heat.
The physicist defines temperature as the average kinetic energy of molecules. Because molecules in the extreme upper atmosphere are heated by the Sun’s direct rays, they travel very fast and register a very high temperature. Typically, they travel many miles before colliding with another molecule, so little slows them down. At those altitudes, the air is so thin (only one 100,000,000,000th as dense as air at sea level) that little heat is transferred.
A thermometer 200 miles above the Earth’s surface might read a frigid -150°F, because it radiates so much heat into far outer space, where the effective temperature is near absolute zero (- 460°F). A thermometer warmer than -150°F would radiate more heat into far outer space than it receives from rare impacts of fast air molecules. Consequently, its temperature would drop. Only when the thermometer’s temperature drops to -150°F will the heat added by fast gas molecules balance the heat lost by radiation. An astronaut without a heated space suit would “feel” the same temperature as the thermometer.
A fraction of each liquid droplet suddenly expelled into the vacuum of outer space will rapidly—but only partially—evaporate. (The technical term is “flash.”) This cools the liquid, just as perspiring cools our skin. Water’s temperature drops about 1°F for every thousandth of its volume that evaporates. This is a strong effect, because the faster (hotter) liquid molecules jump out of the liquid, expending much of the liquid’s internal energy. The water does not freeze until it is below its normal freezing point because (a) the water circulates, and (b) the minerals in solution lower the freezing point, just as antifreeze prevents your car’s radiator fluid from freezing. Once frozen, evaporation slows greatly. With dirt mixed in the liquid, the ice quickly becomes encrusted and sealed inside some of the dirt left behind; evaporation ceases. This is why comet nuclei still contain much water-ice and are dark in color.
120. Y. N. Popov, “New Finds of Pleistocene Animals in Northern USSR,” Nature, No. 3, 1948, p. 76. This is the former Soviet (not the British) journal Nature.
121. Tolmachoff, p. 64.
122. Charles Lyell, the most influential founder of modern geology, advocated this theory to explain some frozen mammoths. [See Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology (reprint, New York: Verlag von J. Cramer, 1970), pp. 96–99.] Herz also used it to explain the Berezovka mammoth. [See Herz, p. 614.]
123. M. Huc, Recollections of a Journey through Tartary, Thibet [Tibet], and China, During the Years 1844, 1845, and 1846. Vol. 2 (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1852), pp. 130 –131.
u Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology, 11th edition, Vol. 1 (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1872), p. 188. Some earlier editions did not contain this report.
124. Streams, rivers, lakes, and oceans freeze from the top down, because water reaches its maximum density at 39°F—seven degrees above its normal freezing point. As cold air further lowers the water’s temperature, water defies the behavior of most liquids and expands. This less-dense water “floats” on top of the denser water. Eventually, it freezes into ice, which is even less dense.
Fortunately, water behaves in this unusual way. If water continued to contract as it became colder and froze, as most liquids do, ice would sink. Bodies of water would freeze from the bottom up. Surface water would quickly freeze, then sink. During the summer, the overlying liquid water would insulate the ice and delay its melting. Each winter more ice would collect at the bottom. This would first occur at polar latitudes, but over the years would spread toward the equator as surface ice reflected more of the Sun’s rays back into space, cooling the Earth. Sea life would eventually cease. Evaporation and rain would diminish, turning the land into a cold, lifeless desert.
125. Tolmachoff, pp. 56, 57.
126. This theory was first proposed by Ides. Middendorff, Lyell, and Bunge favored it in some cases. [See Tolmachoff, pp. viii–ix, 56.]
127. Tolmachoff, p. 66.
128. George M. Dawson, “Notes on the Occurrence of Mammoth Remains in the Yukon District of Canada and in Alaska,” The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, Vol. 50, 1894, pp. 1–9.
129. Michael Oard, Frozen in Time (Green Forest, Arkansas: Master Books, 2004).
u Oard recognizes most of the problems associated with the frozen mammoths. For example, he states:
Why would the woolly mammoth, bison, woolly rhinoceros, and horse be attracted to Siberia? Today, Siberia is a barren, blizzard-scourged wilderness. How could the animals have endured the extremely cold winters? What would they eat? Where would the beasts locate the prodigious quantities of water they require when the land is imprisoned in snow and ice. Even the rivers are covered with several feet of ice every winter. Most puzzling of all is how did the mammoths and their companions die en mass and how could they have become encased in the permafrost? Oard, p. 13.
Birds Eye Frozen Foods Company ran the calculations and came up with a staggering -150°F (-100°C). Once again, the scientists were puzzled. How could such temperatures be reached on earth, especially when they were in a fairly temperate environment before the quick freeze? Oard, p. 14.
A number of carcasses, as well as a few skeletons, have been discovered in a general standing position. [emphasis in original] Oard, p. 19.
Strangely, scientists investigating three woolly mammoths and two woolly rhinos, including the Berezovka mammoth, found they all died by suffocation. [emphasis in original] Oard, p. 20.
Mammoths and the many other types of mammals are ill suited for [even] summer conditions in Siberia. What are millions of them doing in Siberia? ... paradoxically, they lived during the Ice Age. ... The bog vegetation that dominates Siberia’s summers would provide woefully inadequate nutrition for the well-dressed giants. Oard, pp. 26–27, 51–52.
130. To the best of my knowledge, Michael Oard was the first to publish the proposal that warm waters coming from under the Earth’s crust during the flood contributed to the only Ice Age. For this, he deserves full credit. [See Michael J. Oard, “A Rapid Post-Flood Ice Age,” Creation Research Society Quarterly, Vol. 16, June 1979, pp. 29–37. Also see Michael J. Oard, An Ice Age Caused by the Genesis Flood (El Cajon, California: Institute for Creation Research, 1990).]
In 1972, after reading Dolph Earl Hooker’s book, Those Astounding Ice Ages (New York: Exposition Press, 1958), I reached a similar conclusion. Since 1972, every one of my several hundred lectures on the flood explained how the flood produced the Ice Age—or more precisely, produced an Ice Age each winter for many years after the flood.
In 1976, I flew to the Institute for Creation Research (ICR) and spent a day with Drs. Henry M. Morris, Duane T. Gish, and Harold S. Slusher explaining what I believed happened during and following the flood—including the Ice Age. At the end of the day, Morris urged me to publish the explanation in a technical monograph that ICR would publish. Unfortunately, my family and Air Force responsibilities made that impossible. I also felt that a much more detailed, interdisciplinary study of the mechanisms and consequences of the flood should be completed before anything was published. Primarily for that reason, I retired from the Air Force at the first opportunity, in 1980, and began my present work.
Michael Oard and I agree that the global flood produced the Ice Age, in part because warm flood waters came from inside the Earth. However, Oard overlooks an equally important factor: high and, therefore, cold continents. Centuries were required for the crushed, thickened—and, therefore, higher—hydroplates to sink into the mantle. (Each continent was also elevated an additional mile, on average, by a mile-thick layer of flood sediments.) Warm oceans and cold continents produced powerful winds which, in turn, transported vast amounts of moisture up onto the cold continents where snow and ice accumulated.
Oard suggests that the preflood subterranean water was 3,000–10,000 feet below the Earth’s surface [Oard, Frozen in Time, p. 75]. He believes that a deeper source of the flood water would have been too hot for present sea life to have survived. However, water at 3,000–10,000 feet depths would easily and quickly escape to the Earth’s surface through the slightest crack, but at depths greater than 5 miles, pressures are so great that rock is sealed like highly compressed putty. [See the technical note, “Highly Compressed Solids,” on page 625.] For various reasons, I have estimated that the preflood subterranean water was about 60 miles below the preflood Earth’s surface. Page 129 explains why the hot subterranean waters did not scald the Earth.
Much heat is needed to produce the evaporation needed for the Ice Age. Pages 160– 200 explain why that heat was not concentrated in surface water after the flood. Instead, considerable heat was in the voluminous flood basalts, especially those on the floor of the western Pacific. Heat leaked slowly, keeping Pacific waters warm for centuries. Today’s El Niños are a small reminder of that process.
PREDICTION 27: General circulation models of the Earth’s weather will be able to demonstrate that an ice age would have occurred if warm oceans, vast flood basalts, and high, cold continents once existed.
131. Hapgood, The Path of the Pole, 1970, pp. 249–270.
132. Fred Hoyle, Ice (New York: The Continuum Publishing Co., 1981), pp. 159, 160.
133. Smaller dirt particles have a much greater ratio of viscous-to-inertial forces acting on them. Thus, the liquid seems more viscous to smaller particles. Sudden movements of the droplet carry the smaller dirt particles with the liquid, while larger particles, which have higher inertial forces, could be thrown out of the liquid.
134. Niels Reeh, “Was the Greenland Ice Sheet Thinner in the Late Wisconsinan Than Now?” Nature, Vol. 317, 31 October 1985, p. 797.
u R. M. Koerner and D. A. Fisher, “Discontinuous Flow, Ice Texture, and Dirt Content in the Basal Layers of the Devon Island Ice Cap,” Journal of Glaciology, Vol. 23, No. 89, 1979, pp. 209–219.
135. P. A. Mayewski et al., “Changes in Atmospheric Circulation and Ocean Cover over the North Atlantic During the Last 41,000 Years,” Science, Vol. 263, 25 March 1994, pp. 1747–1751.
136. Besides being salty, rock ice will contain carbon dioxide and many dissolved minerals, will have a crystallographic structure showing that it formed at very low pressures and temperatures, and will have large hydrogen and oxygen isotope variations. Such variations have already been reported at the bottom of ice cores on Devon Island in Arctic Canada. The same ice layer has a high silt content. [See Koerner and Fisher.] Also, ice cores from Byrd Station in Antarctica contain large oxygen (O18/O16) and hydrogen (H2/H1) variations in the bottom half of the ice sheet. [See Samuel Epstein et al., “Antarctic Ice Sheet,” Science, Vol. 168, 26 June 1970, pp. 1570 –1572.] The bottom ice in some ice wedges in Siberia is abnormally salty. [See Yu. K. Vasilchuk and V. T. Trofimov, “Cryohydrochemical Peculiarities of Ice Wedge Polygon Complexes in the North of Western Siberia,” Permafrost: Fourth International Conference Proceedings (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, July 17–22, 1983), pp. 1303–1308.]
137. Only the leading edge of the giant mass of falling hail was heated—specifically, the outer surface of each ice particle in that leading edge. These relatively few outer surfaces acted much like an ablative shield that protects a reentering space ship from friction and heat, with two important differences: (a) the ice is very cold, as explained in “Rocket Science” on pages 598– 599, so a little ice absorbed heat from the atmosphere and became rain, and (b) the ice particles had almost no kinetic energy at the top of their trajectory, but a spacecraft or meteor has a gigantic amount at the same altitude. (Meteors are typically traveling 50,000 miles per hour when they hit the upper atmosphere.) Therefore, little heat was transferred to the atmosphere, and little of a massive glob of ice melted.
138. One geologist, trying to falsify this prediction, drafted an article claiming that a geologic map showed layered, fossil-bearing strata under the Colorado Creek mammoths. He misread his geologic map. Had he read it correctly, he would have seen that it supported this prediction. The article was never published and that geologist has stopped spreading the misinformation.
139. Tolmachoff (p. 51) reported, “The uppermost position of mammoth-bearing deposits [cover the] sediments of the Arctic transgression ...” This has caused some confusion in North America where “transgression” means the advance of the sea over the land. Such an advance might deposit sediments and fossils unconformably. To Europeans (and presumably the European-trained Tolmachoff) the term “transgression” simply means an unconformity—basically, dirt that is not layered. [See “ transgression,” in Robert L. Bates and Julia A. Jackson, editors, Glossary of Geology, 2nd edition (Falls Church, Virginia: American Geological Institute, 1980), p. 660.] In other words, rocks under the mammoths are not stratified. Tolmachoff attributed this to glacial activity, but described nothing showing glacial activity.
140. Digby, p. 93.
141. Troy L. Péwé, Quaternary Geology, Geological Survey Professional Paper 835 (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1975), pp. 41–42.
142. Vereshchagin and Tikhonov, p. 18.
143. N. A. Dubrovo et al., p. 633.
144. Ibid.
145. Troy L. Péwé, Quaternary Stratigraphic Nomenclature in Unglaciated Central Alaska, Geological Survey Professional Paper 862 (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1975), p. 30.
u Guthrie, p. 38.
146. Thorson and Guthrie, p. 222.
147. Ibid., p. 221.
148. One questionable story came from an exhibit of frozen mammoth remains that toured the United States in 1992. The official brochure stated without elaboration, “Portions of a mammoth thousands of years old that was discovered in permafrost were defrosted, cooked and served at a banquet honoring scientists.” Hapgood (The Path of the Pole, p. 261) made a similar statement but mentioned the name of the man who claimed to have eaten mammoth steak in Moscow in the 1930s.
149. Lydekker, p. 363.
150. Herz, p. 621.
151. Rich, p. 647.
152. Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology (New York: Verlag von J. Cramer, reprint edition, 1970), p. 97.
153. Guthrie, pp. 9, 11, 12, 20.
u Georges Cuvier, Essay on the Theory of the Earth, reprint edition (New York: Arno Press, 1978), pp. 274–276.
154. Krause, p. 88.
155. S. Keith Eltringham, Elephants, editor Jeheskel Shoshani, (Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale Press, 1992), p. 126.
156. Digby, 171.
u Charles H. Hapgood, “The Mystery of the Frozen Mammoths,” Coronet, September 1960, pp. 71–78.
u Sanderson, 1960, p. 83.
157. Henryk Kubiak, “Morphological Characters of the Mammoth,” Paleoecology of Beringia, editors David M. Hopkins et al. (New York: Academic Press, 1982), p. 282.
158. Hoyle, p. 160.
159. Howorth, p. 182.
160. Guthrie, p. 17.
161. Tolmachoff, p. 52.
162. Tolmachoff, p. 52.
163. Hapgood, The Path of the Pole, p. 258.
164. Howorth, p. 61.
165. Hapgood, The Path of the Pole, p. 257.
166. Guthrie, pp. 30 – 32.
167. Jocelyn Selim, “Land of the Lost ... and Found,” Discover, July 2003, p. 11.
168. Oard, Frozen in Time, pp. 141–143.
169. Ibid., pp. 91–94.
170. “The migration of the mammoths into the United States is the main challenge.” Ibid., p. 140.
171. Ibid., p. 130.
172. Ibid., p. 172.
173. Hoyle, p. 160.
174. “As is now increasingly acknowledged, however, Lyell [the father of geology] also sold geology some snake oil. He convinced geologists that because physical laws are constant in time and space and current processes should be consulted before resorting to unseen processes, it necessarily follows that all past processes acted at essentially their current rates (that is, those observed in historical time). This extreme gradualism has led to numerous unfortunate consequences, including the rejection of sudden or catastrophic events in the face of positive evidence for them, for no reason other than that they were not gradual.” Warren D. Allmon, “Post-Gradualism,” Science, Vol. 262, 1 October 1993, p. 122.
175. See, for example, Rudwick’s introduction to Charles Lyell’s influential Principles of Geology (1830; reprint, Martin J. S. Rudwick, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990), pp. xvi–xvii. Chapter 3 of Lyell’s Principles (pp. 21–54) is particularly revealing.